Indicative reprint noteThis is an unofficial version of a reprint of this Act that incorporates all proposed amendments to the Act included in the Defamation and Other Legislation Amendment Bill 2025. This indicative reprint has been prepared for information only—it is not an authorised reprint of the Act.The point-in-time date for this indicative reprint is the introduction date for the Defamation and Other Legislation Amendment Bill 2025—14 October 2025.Detailed information about indicative reprints is available on the Information page of this website.Defamation Act 2005An Act to provide in Queensland provisions promoting uniform laws of defamation in Australia and to repeal the Defamation Act 1889Part 1Preliminary1Short titleThis Act may be cited as the Defamation Act 2005.2CommencementThis Act commences on 1 January 2006.3Objects of ActThe objects of this Act are—

(a)to enact provisions to promote uniform laws of defamation in Australia; andNote—To maximise uniformity between this Act and Acts enacted in other jurisdictions to promote uniform laws of defamation in Australia—

•the numbers of some provisions that are not enacted in this jurisdiction have not been used in the numbering of this Act

•this Act includes 3 references to schedules that are not enacted.

(b)to ensure that the law of defamation does not place unreasonable limits on freedom of expression and, in particular, on the publication and discussion of matters of public interest and importance; and

(c)to provide effective and fair remedies for persons whose reputations are harmed by the publication of defamatory matter; and

(d)to promote speedy and non-litigious methods of resolving disputes about the publication of defamatory matter.

4Interpretation(1)The dictionary in schedule 5 defines particular words used in this Act.(2)Notes do not form part of this Act.5Act binds all personsThis Act binds all persons, including the State and, as far as the legislative power of the Parliament permits, the Commonwealth and the other States.Part 2General principlesDivision 1Defamation and the general law6Tort of defamation(1)This Act relates to the tort of defamation at general law.(2)This Act does not affect the operation of the general law in relation to the tort of defamation except to the extent that this Act provides otherwise (whether expressly or by necessary implication).(3)Without limiting subsection (2), the general law as it is from time to time applies for the purposes of this Act as if the Defamation Act 1889 had never been enacted.7Distinction between slander and libel remains abolished(1)The distinction at general law between slander and libel remains abolished.(2)Accordingly, the publication of defamatory matter of any kind is actionable without proof of special damage.Division 2Causes of action for defamation8Single cause of action for multiple defamatory imputations in same matterA person has a single cause of action for defamation in relation to the publication of defamatory matter about the person even if more than 1 defamatory imputation about the person is carried by the matter.9Certain corporations do not have cause of action for defamation(1)A corporation has no cause of action for defamation in relation to the publication of defamatory matter about the corporation unless it was an excluded corporation at the time of the publication.(2)A corporation is an excluded corporation if—

(a)the objects for which it is formed do not include obtaining financial gain for its members or corporators; or

(b)it has fewer than 10 employees and is not an associated entity of another corporation;

and the corporation is not a public body.(3)In counting employees for the purposes of subsection (2)(b), part-time employees are to be taken into account as an appropriate fraction of a full-time equivalent.(5)Subsection (1) does not affect any cause of action for defamation that an individual associated with a corporation has in relation to the publication of defamatory matter about the individual even if the publication of the same matter also defames the corporation.(6)In this section—corporation includes any body corporate or corporation constituted by or under a law of any country (including by exercise of a prerogative right), whether or not a public body.employee, in relation to a corporation, includes any individual (whether or not an independent contractor) who is—

(a)engaged in the day to day operations of the corporation other than as a volunteer; and

(b) subject to the control and direction of the corporation.

public body means a local government body or other governmental or public authority constituted by or under a law of any country.10No cause of action for defamation of, or against, deceased persons(1)A person (including a personal representative of a deceased person) can not assert, continue or enforce a cause of action for defamation in relation to—

(a)the publication of defamatory matter about a deceased person (whether published before or after his or her death); or

(b)the publication of defamatory matter by a person who has died since publishing the matter.

(2)Subsection (1) does not prevent a court, if it considers it in the interests of justice to do so, from determining the question of costs for proceedings discontinued because of the subsection.10ASerious harm element of cause of action for defamation(1)It is an element (the serious harm element) of a cause of action for defamation that the publication of defamatory matter about a person has caused, or is likely to cause, serious harm to the reputation of the person.(2)For the purposes of subsection (1), harm to the reputation of an excluded corporation is not serious harm unless it has caused, or is likely to cause, the corporation serious financial loss.(3)The judicial officer (and not the jury) in defamation proceedings is to determine whether the serious harm element is established.(4)Without limiting subsection (3), the judicial officer may (whether on the application of a party or on the judicial officer’s own motion)—

(a)determine whether the serious harm element is established at any time before the trial for the proceedings commences or during the trial; and

(b)make any orders the judicial officer considers appropriate concerning the determination of the issue (including dismissing the proceedings if satisfied the element is not established).

(5)If a party applies for the serious harm element to be determined before the trial for the proceedings commences, the judicial officer is to determine the issue as soon as practicable before the trial commences unless satisfied that there are special circumstances justifying the postponement of the determination to a later stage of the proceedings (including during the trial).(6)The matters a judicial officer may take into account in deciding whether there are special circumstances for the purposes of subsection (5) include (but are not limited to) the following—

(a)the cost implications for the parties;

(b)the resources available to the court at the time;

(c)the extent to which establishing the serious harm element is linked to other issues for determination during the trial for the proceedings.

(7)Without limiting subsection (5), the judicial officer may determine the serious harm element is not established on the pleadings without the need for further evidence if satisfied that the pleaded particulars are insufficient to establish the element.(8)Nothing in this section limits the powers that a judicial officer may have apart from this section to dismiss defamation proceedings (whether before or after the trial commences).Division 2AExemptions from liability for digital intermediaries10C Exemption for digital intermediaries providing caching services, conduit services or storage services(1)A digital intermediary is not liable for defamation for the publication of digital matter if the intermediary proves—

(a)the matter was published using 1 or more of the following services provided by the intermediary—

(i)a caching service;

(ii)a conduit service;

(iii)a storage service; and

(b)the intermediary’s role in the publication was limited to providing 1 or more of the services mentioned in paragraph (a); and

(c)the intermediary did not do any of the following—

(i)initiate the steps required to publish the matter;

(ii)select any of the recipients of the matter;

(iii)encourage the poster of the matter to publish the matter;

(iv)edit the content of the matter, whether before or after it was published;

(v)promote the matter, whether before or after it was published.

(2)Subsection (1)(c) does not apply in relation to action taken because it is required by or under a law of an Australian jurisdiction or an order of an Australian court or Australian tribunal.Example—action taken to comply with a code of conduct or other document regulating conduct that a digital intermediary is required to comply with by a law of an Australian jurisdiction(3)Subsection (1) applies regardless of whether the digital intermediary knew, or ought reasonably to have known, the digital matter was defamatory. (4)In this section—caching service means an online service whose principal function is to provide automatic, intermediate and temporary storage of content for the purpose of making the onward electronic transmission of the content more efficient for its users.Example of a caching service—a service for temporarily and automatically storing files that are most frequently downloaded by users of a website to speed up the download time for the filesconduit service means an online service whose principal function is to enable its users to access or use networks or other infrastructure to connect to, or send or receive data by means of, the internet.Examples of a conduit service—

•a service provided by an internet service provider enabling its users to connect to the internet

•an internet-based service enabling its users to send emails or send text messages to other persons

storage service means an online service, other than a caching service, whose principal function is to enable its users to store content remotely.Example of a storage service—an internet-based cloud service enabling its users to store documents, videos or photographs for later retrieval10DExemption for search engine providers(1)A search engine provider for a search engine is not liable for defamation for—

(a)the publication of digital matter comprised of search results if the provider’s role was limited to providing an automated process for the user of the search engine to generate the results; or

(b)the publication of digital matter to which the search results provide a hyperlink if the provider’s role in the publication of the matter is limited to the role mentioned in paragraph (a).

(2)Subsection (1) does not apply in relation to search results, or to digital matter to which the search results provide hyperlinks, to the extent the results are promoted or prioritised by the search engine provider because of a payment or other benefit given to the provider by or on behalf of a third party.(3)Subsection (1) applies regardless of whether the search engine provider knew, or ought reasonably to have known, the digital matter was defamatory.(4)In this section—search engine means a software application or system designed to enable its users to search for content on the internet.search engine provider, for a search engine, means a person who maintains, or provides users with access to the search functions of, the search engine.search result means a result generated by a search engine that is limited to identifying a webpage on which content is located by reference to 1 or more of the following—

(a)the title of the webpage;

(b)a hyperlink to the webpage;

(c)an extract from the webpage;

(d)an image from the webpage.

10EEarly determination of digital intermediary exemptions(1)The judicial officer in defamation proceedings—

(a)is to determine whether a defendant has a digital intermediary exemption; and

(b)is to determine whether a digital intermediary exemption is established as soon as practicable before the trial for the proceedings commences unless satisfied that there are good reasons to postpone the determination to a later stage of the proceedings; and

(c)may make any orders the judicial officer considers appropriate concerning the determination of the issue, including dismissing the proceedings if satisfied the digital intermediary exemption is established.

(2)Without limiting subsection (1)—

(a)the following matters are relevant in deciding whether there are good reasons to postpone the determination of whether a digital intermediary exemption is established to a later stage of the proceedings—

(i)the cost implications for the parties;

(ii)the resources available to the court at the time;

(iii)the extent to which technical or scientific issues are raised in the proceedings;

(iv)the extent to which establishing the digital intermediary exemption is linked to other issues for determination during the trial for the proceedings; and

(b)the judicial officer may determine a digital intermediary exemption is established on the pleadings without the need for further evidence if satisfied that the pleaded particulars are sufficient to establish the exemption.

(3)Nothing in this section limits the powers that a judicial officer may have apart from this section to dismiss defamation proceedings, whether before or after the trial for the proceedings commences.(4)In this section—digital intermediary exemption means an exemption from liability for defamation mentioned in section 10C or 10D.Division 3Choice of law11Choice of law for defamation proceedings(1)If a matter is published wholly within a particular Australian jurisdictional area, the substantive law that is applicable in that area must be applied in this jurisdiction to determine any cause of action for defamation based on the publication.(2)If there is a multiple publication of matter in more than 1 Australian jurisdictional area, the substantive law applicable in the Australian jurisdictional area with which the harm occasioned by the publication as a whole has its closest connection must be applied in this jurisdiction to determine each cause of action for defamation based on the publication.(3)In determining the Australian jurisdictional area with which the harm occasioned by a publication of matter has its closest connection, a court may take into account—

(a)the place at the time of publication where the plaintiff was ordinarily resident or, in the case of a corporation that may assert a cause of action for defamation, the place where the corporation had its principal place of business at that time; and

(b)the extent of publication in each relevant Australian jurisdictional area; and

(c)the extent of harm sustained by the plaintiff in each relevant Australian jurisdictional area; and

(d)any other matter that the court considers relevant.

(4)For the purposes of this section, the substantive law applicable in an Australian jurisdictional area does not include any law prescribing rules for choice of law that differ from the rules prescribed by this section.(5)In this section—Australian jurisdictional area means—

(a)the geographical area of Australia that lies within the territorial limits of a particular State (including its coastal waters), but not including any territory, place or other area referred to in paragraph (c); or

(b)the geographical area of Australia that lies within the territorial limits of a particular Territory (including its coastal waters), but not including any territory, place or other area referred to in paragraph (c); or

(c)any territory, place or other geographical area of Australia over which the Commonwealth has legislative competence but over which no State or Territory has legislative competence.

geographical area of Australia includes—

(a)the territorial sea of Australia; and

(b)the external Territories of the Commonwealth.

multiple publication means publication by a particular person of the same, or substantially the same, matter in substantially the same form to 2 or more persons.Part 3Resolution of civil disputes without litigationDivision 1Concerns notices and offers to make amends12Application of division(1)This division applies if a person (the publisher) publishes matter (the matter in question) that is, or may be, defamatory of another person (the aggrieved person).(2)The provisions of this division may be used instead of the provisions of any rules of court or any other law in relation to payment into court or offers of compromise.(3)Nothing in this division prevents a publisher or aggrieved person from making or accepting a settlement offer in relation to the publication of the matter in question otherwise than in accordance with the provisions of this division.12AConcerns notices(1)For the purpose of this Act, a notice is a concerns notice if—

(a)the notice—

(i)is in writing; and

(ii)specifies the location where the matter in question can be accessed (for example, a webpage address); and

(iii)informs the publisher of the defamatory imputations that the aggrieved person considers are or may be carried about the aggrieved person by the matter in question; and

(iv)informs the publisher of the harm that the person considers to be serious harm to the person’s reputation caused, or likely to be caused, by the publication of the matter in question; and

(v)for an aggrieved person that is an excluded corporation—also informs the publisher of the financial loss that the corporation considers to be serious financial loss caused, or likely to be caused, by the publication of the matter in question; and

(b)a copy of the matter in question is, if practicable, provided to the publisher together with the notice.

Note—Section 12B requires a concerns notice to be given before proceedings for defamation can be commenced.(2)For the avoidance of doubt, a document that is required to be filed or lodged to commence defamation proceedings can not be used as a concerns notice.(3)If a concerns notice fails to particularise adequately any of the information required by subsection (1)(a)(ii), (iii), (iv) or (v), the publisher may give the aggrieved person a written notice (a further particulars notice) requesting that the aggrieved person provide reasonable further particulars as specified in the further particulars notice about the information concerned.(4)An aggrieved person to whom a further particulars notice is given must provide the reasonable further particulars specified in the notice within 14 days (or any further period agreed by the publisher and aggrieved person) after being given the notice.(5)An aggrieved person who fails to provide the reasonable further particulars specified in a further particulars notice within the applicable period is taken not to have given the publisher a concerns notice for the purposes of this section.12BDefamation proceedings can not be commenced without concerns notice(1)An aggrieved person can not commence defamation proceedings unless—

(a)the person has given the proposed defendant a concerns notice in respect of the matter concerned; and

(b)the imputations to be relied on by the person in the proposed proceedings were particularised in the concerns notice; and

(c)the applicable period for an offer to make amends has elapsed.

(2)Subsection (1)(b) does not prevent reliance on—

(a)some, but not all, of the imputations particularised in a concerns notice; or

(b)imputations that are substantially the same as those particularised in a concerns notice.

(3)The court may grant leave for proceedings to be commenced despite non-compliance with subsection (1)(c), but only if the proposed plaintiff satisfies the court—

(a)the commencement of proceedings after the end of the applicable period for an offer to make amends contravenes the limitation law; or

(b)it is just and reasonable to grant leave.

(4)The commencement of proceedings contravenes the limitation law for the purposes of subsection (3)(a) if the proceedings could not be commenced after the end of the applicable period for an offer to make amends because the court will have ceased to have power to extend the limitation period.(5)In this section—limitation law means the Limitation of Actions Act 1974.13Publisher may make offer to make amends(1)The publisher may make an offer to make amends to the aggrieved person.(2)The offer may be—

(a)in relation to the matter in question generally; or

(b)limited to any particular defamatory imputations that the publisher accepts that the matter in question carries.

(3)If 2 or more persons published the matter in question, an offer to make amends by 1 or more of them does not affect the liability of the other or others.(4)An offer to make amends is taken to have been made without prejudice, unless the offer provides otherwise.14When offer to make amends may be made(1)An offer to make amends can not be made if—

(a)the applicable period for an offer to make amends has expired; or

(b)a defence has been served in an action brought by the aggrieved person against the publisher in relation to the matter in question.

(2)For the purposes of this Act, the applicable period for an offer to make amends is—

(a)if the aggrieved person has provided further particulars in response to a further particulars notice about a concerns notice after 14 days have elapsed since the concerns notice was given—14 days since the publisher was given the further particulars; or

(b)in any other case—28 days since the publisher was given a concerns notice by the aggrieved person.

(3)If a publisher gives more than 1 further particulars notice, subsection (2)(a) applies only in respect of the first notice.15Content of offer to make amends(1)An offer to make amends—

(a)must be in writing; and

(b)must be readily identifiable as an offer to make amends under this division; and

(ba)must provide for the offer to be open for acceptance for at least 28 days commencing on the day the offer is made; and

(c)if the offer is limited to any particular defamatory imputations—must state that the offer is so limited and particularise the imputations to which the offer is limited; and

(d)must include an offer to publish, or join in publishing, a reasonable correction of, or a clarification of or additional information about, the matter in question or, if the offer is limited to any particular defamatory imputations, the imputations to which the offer is limited; and

(e)if material containing the matter has been given to someone else by the publisher or with the publisher’s knowledge—must include an offer to take, or join in taking, reasonable steps to tell the other person that the matter is or may be defamatory of the aggrieved person; and

(f)must include an offer to pay the expenses reasonably incurred by the aggrieved person before the offer was made and the expenses reasonably incurred by the aggrieved person in considering the offer.

(1A)In addition to the matters referred to in subsection (1), an offer to make amends may include any other kind of offer, or particulars of any other action taken by the publisher, to redress the harm sustained by the aggrieved person because of the matter in question, including (but not limited to)—

(a)an offer to publish, or join in publishing, an apology in relation to the matter in question or, if the offer is limited to any particular defamatory imputations, the imputations to which the offer is limited; or

(b)if the matter is digital matter—an offer to take access prevention steps in relation to the matter; or

(b)if the matter has been published on a website or any other electronically accessible location—an offer to remove the matter from the website or location; or

(c)an offer to pay compensation for any economic or non-economic loss of the aggrieved person; or

(d)the particulars of any correction or apology made, or action taken, before the date of the offer.

(1B)If the matter in question is digital matter, an offer to take access prevention steps may be made instead of, or in addition to, either or both of the offers mentioned in subsection (1)(d) and (e).(2)Without limiting subsection (1A)(c), an offer to pay compensation may comprise or include any 1 or more of the following—

(a)an offer to pay a stated amount;

(b)an offer to pay an amount to be agreed between the publisher and the aggrieved person;

(c)an offer to pay an amount determined by an arbitrator appointed, or agreed on, by the publisher and the aggrieved person;

(d)an offer to pay an amount determined by a court.

(3)If an offer to make amends is accepted, a court may, on the application of the aggrieved person or publisher, determine—

(a)if the offer provides for a court to determine the amount of compensation payable under the offer—the amount of compensation to be paid under the offer; and

(b)any other question that arises about what must be done to carry out the terms of the offer.

(4)The powers conferred on a court by subsection (3) are exercisable—

(a)if the aggrieved person has brought proceedings against the publisher in any court for defamation in relation to the matter in question, by that court in those proceedings; and

(b)except as provided in paragraph (a), by the Supreme Court.

16Withdrawal of offer to make amends(1)An offer to make amends may be withdrawn before it is accepted by notice in writing given to the aggrieved person.(2)A publisher who has withdrawn an offer to make amends may make a renewed offer.(3)A renewed offer may (but need not) be in the same terms as the withdrawn offer.(4)A renewed offer is to be treated as a new offer (including for the purposes of section 14).(5)However, the time limit specified in section 14 for the making of offers to make amends does not prevent the making of a renewed offer that is not in the same terms as the withdrawn offer if—

(a)the renewed offer represents a genuine attempt by the publisher to address matters of concern raised by the aggrieved person about the withdrawn offer; and

(b)the renewed offer is made within 14 days after the withdrawal of the withdrawn offer or any other period agreed by the publisher and the aggrieved person.

17Effect of acceptance of offer to make amends(1)If the publisher carries out the terms of an offer to make amends (including payment of any compensation under the offer) that is accepted, the aggrieved person can not assert, continue or enforce an action for defamation against the publisher in relation to the matter in question even if the offer was limited to any particular defamatory imputations.(2)A court may (but need not)—

(a)order the publisher to pay the aggrieved person the expenses reasonably incurred by the aggrieved person as a result of accepting the offer; and

(b)order any costs incurred by the aggrieved person that form part of those expenses to be assessed on an indemnity basis.

(3)The powers conferred on a court by subsection (2) are exercisable—

(a)if the aggrieved person has brought proceedings against the publisher in any court for defamation in relation to the matter in question, by that court in those proceedings; and

(b)except as provided in paragraph (a), by the Supreme Court.

18Effect of failure to accept reasonable offer to make amends(1)If an offer to make amends is made in relation to the matter in question but is not accepted, it is a defence to an action for defamation against the publisher in relation to the matter if—

(a)the publisher made the offer as soon as reasonably practicable after the publisher was given a concerns notice in respect of the matter (and, in any event, within the applicable period for an offer to make amends); and

(b)the publisher was ready and willing, on acceptance of the offer by the aggrieved person, to carry out the terms of the offer; and

(c)in all the circumstances the offer was reasonable.

(2)In determining whether an offer to make amends is reasonable, a court—

(a)must have regard to any correction or apology published before any trial arising out of the matter in question, including the extent to which the correction or apology is brought to the attention of the audience of the matter in question taking into account—

(i)the prominence given to the correction or apology as published in comparison to the prominence given to the matter in question as published; and

(ii)the period that elapses between publication of the matter in question and publication of the correction or apology; and

(b)may have regard to—

(i)whether the aggrieved person refused to accept an offer that was limited to any particular defamatory imputations because the aggrieved person did not agree with the publisher about the imputations that the matter in question carried; and

(ii)any other matter that the court considers relevant.

(3)Despite section 22(2), the judicial officer (and not the jury) in defamation proceedings tried by jury is to determine whether a defence under this section is established.19Inadmissibility of evidence of certain statements and admissions(1)Evidence of any statement or admission made in connection with the making or acceptance of an offer to make amends is not admissible as evidence in any legal proceedings (whether criminal or civil).(2)Subsection (1) does not prevent the admission of evidence in any legal proceedings in order to determine—

(a)any issue arising under, or relating to the application of, a provision of this division; or

(b)costs in defamation proceedings.

Division 2Apologies20Effect of apology on liability for defamation(1)An apology made by or on behalf of a person in connection with any defamatory matter alleged to have been published by the person—

(a)does not constitute an express or implied admission of fault or liability by the person in connection with that matter; and

(b)is not relevant to the determination of fault or liability in connection with that matter.

(2)Evidence of an apology made by or on behalf of a person in connection with any defamatory matter alleged to have been published by the person is not admissible in any civil proceedings as evidence of the fault or liability of the person in connection with that matter.(3)Nothing in this section limits the operation of section 38.Part 4Litigation of civil disputesDivision 1General21Election for defamation proceedings to be tried by jury(1)Unless the court orders otherwise, a plaintiff or defendant in defamation proceedings may elect for the proceedings to be tried by jury.(1A)Without limiting subsection (1), a court may order that defamation proceedings are not to be tried by jury if—

(a)the trial requires a prolonged examination of records; or

(b)the trial involves any technical, scientific or other issue that can not be conveniently considered and resolved by a jury.

(2)An election must be made at the time and in the manner prescribed by the rules of court for the court in which the proceedings are to be tried.(3)An election may be revoked only—

(a)with the consent of all the parties to the proceedings; or

(b)if all the parties do not consent—with the leave of the court.

(4)The court may, on the application of a party to the proceedings, grant leave for the purposes of subsection (3)(b) only if satisfied it is in the interests of justice for the election to be revoked.(5)In this section—court means the Supreme Court or the District Court.22Roles of judicial officers and juries in defamation proceedings(1)This section applies to defamation proceedings that are tried by jury.(2)The jury is to determine whether the defendant has published defamatory matter about the plaintiff and, if so, whether any defence raised by the defendant has been established.(3)If the jury finds that the defendant has published defamatory matter about the plaintiff and that no defence has been established, the judicial officer and not the jury is to determine the amount of damages (if any) that should be awarded to the plaintiff and all unresolved issues of fact and law relating to the determination of that amount.(4)If the proceedings relate to more than 1 cause of action for defamation, the jury must give a single verdict in relation to all causes of action on which the plaintiff relies unless the judicial officer orders otherwise.(5)Nothing in this section—

(a)affects any law or practice relating to special verdicts; or

(b)requires or permits a jury to determine any issue that, at general law, is an issue to be determined by the judicial officer; or

(c)requires or permits a jury to determine any issue that another provision of this Act requires a judicial officer to determine.

23Leave required for multiple proceedings in relation to publication of same defamatory matter(1)This section applies to a person who has brought defamation proceedings for damages, whether in this jurisdiction or elsewhere, against a person (a previous defendant) in relation to the publication of a matter.(2)The person may not bring further defamation proceedings for damages against a previous defendant or an associate of a previous defendant in relation to the same or any other publication of the same or like matter, except with the leave of the court in which the further proceedings are to be brought.(3)A person is an associate of a previous defendant if, at the time of the publication to which the previous defamation proceedings related, the person was—

(a)an employee of the defendant; or

(b)a person publishing matter as a contractor of the defendant; or

(c)an associated entity of the defendant (or an employee or contractor of the associated entity).

23AOrders for preliminary discovery about posters of digital matter(1)This section applies if the court procedure law for a court allows a person seeking to bring defamation proceedings for the publication of digital matter to obtain an order for, or in the nature of, preliminary discovery for either or both of the following purposes—

(a)to obtain information to assist in identifying the posters of the matter;

(b)to obtain information to assist in locating physical or digital addresses for the posters of the matter to allow concerns notices to be given to them or defamation proceedings against them to be commenced.

(2)Despite anything to the contrary in the court procedure law for a court, the court must take the following matters into account before making an order mentioned in subsection (1)—

(a)the objects of this Act;

(b)privacy, safety or other public interest considerations that may arise if the order is made.Example for paragraph (b)—evidence suggesting the poster of digital matter is in fear of domestic violence from the person seeking an order to obtain the poster’s address

(3)This section does not limit the matters the court may take into account before making an order mentioned in subsection (1). (4)In this section—court procedure law, for a court, means—

(a)rules of court for the court; or

(b)an Act or other legislation that regulates the practice or procedure of the court; or

(c)the general law concerning the inherent or implied jurisdiction or powers of the court.

Division 2Defences24Scope of defences under general law and other law not limited(1)A defence under this division is additional to any other defence or exclusion of liability available to the defendant apart from this Act (including under the general law) and does not of itself vitiate, limit or abrogate any other defence or exclusion of liability.(2)If a defence under this division to the publication of defamatory matter may be defeated by proof that the publication was actuated by malice, the general law applies in defamation proceedings in which the defence is raised to determine whether a particular publication of matter was actuated by malice.25Defence of justificationIt is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that the defamatory imputations carried by the matter of which the plaintiff complains are substantially true.26Defence of contextual truth(1)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that—

(a)the matter carried 1 or more imputations that are substantially true (contextual imputations); and

(b)any defamatory imputations of which the plaintiff complains that are not contextual imputations and are also carried by the matter do not further harm the reputation of the plaintiff because of the substantial truth of the contextual imputations.

(2)The contextual imputations on which the defendant may rely to establish the defence include imputations of which the plaintiff complains.27Defence of absolute privilege(1)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that it was published on an occasion of absolute privilege.(2)Without limiting subsection (1), matter is published on an occasion of absolute privilege if—

(a)the matter is published in the course of the proceedings of a parliamentary body, including (but not limited to)—

(i)the publication of a document by order, or under the authority, of the body; and

(ii)the publication of the debates and proceedings of the body by or under the authority of the body or any law; and

(iii)the publication of matter while giving evidence before the body; and

(iv)the publication of matter while presenting or submitting a document to the body; or

(b)the matter is published in the course of the proceedings of an Australian court or Australian tribunal, including (but not limited to)—

(i)the publication of matter in any document filed or lodged with, or otherwise submitted to, the court or tribunal (including any originating process); and

(ii)the publication of matter while giving evidence before the court or tribunal; and

(iii)the publication of matter in any judgment, order or other determination of the court or tribunal; or

(ba)the matter is published to a person who, at the time of the publication, is an official of a police force or service of an Australian jurisdiction and it is published to the official while the official is acting in an official capacity; or

(c)the matter is published on an occasion that, if published in another Australian jurisdiction, would be an occasion of absolute privilege in that jurisdiction under a provision of a law of the jurisdiction corresponding to this section; or

(d)the matter is published by a person or body in any circumstances specified in schedule 1.

Note—This Act does not contain a schedule 1. See note to section 3(a).(3)In this section—official, of a police force or service of an Australian jurisdiction, means—

(a)an officer, employee or member of staff of the police force or service; or

(b)another person engaged to act for or on behalf of the police force or service.

28Defence for publication of public documents(1)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that the matter was contained in—

(a)a public document or a fair copy of a public document; or

(b)a fair summary of, or a fair extract from, a public document.

(2)For the purposes of subsection (1), if a report or other document under the law of a country would be a public document except for non-compliance with a provision of that law about—

(a)the formal requirements for the content or layout of the report or document; or

(b)the time within which the report or document is prepared, or presented, submitted, tabled or laid to or before a person or body;

the report or document is a public document despite that non-compliance.(3)A defence established under subsection (1) is defeated if, and only if, the plaintiff proves that the defamatory matter was not published honestly for the information of the public or the advancement of education.(4)In this section—public document means—

(a)any report or paper published by a parliamentary body, or a record of votes, debates or other proceedings relating to a parliamentary body published by or under the authority of the body or any law; or

(b)any judgment, order or other determination of a court or arbitral tribunal of any country in civil proceedings, including—

(i)any record of the court or tribunal relating to the judgment, order or determination or to its enforcement or satisfaction; and

(ii)any report of the court or tribunal about its judgment, order or determination and the reasons for its judgment, order or determination; or

(c)any report or other document that under the law of any country—

(i)is authorised to be published; or

(ii)is required to be presented or submitted to, tabled in, or laid before, a parliamentary body; or

(d)any document issued by the government (including a local government) of a country, or by an officer, employee or agency of the government, for the information of the public; or

(e)any record or other document open to inspection by the public that is kept—

(i)by an Australian jurisdiction; or

(ii)by a statutory authority of an Australian jurisdiction; or

(iii)by an Australian court; or

(iv)under legislation of an Australian jurisdiction; or

(f)any other document issued, kept or published by a person, body or organisation of another Australian jurisdiction that is treated in that jurisdiction as a public document under a provision of a law of the jurisdiction corresponding to this section; or

(g)any document of a kind specified in schedule 2.

Note—This Act does not contain a schedule 2. See note to section 3(a).29Defences of fair report of proceedings of public concern(1)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that the matter was, or was contained in, a fair report of any proceedings of public concern.(2)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that—

(a)the matter was, or was contained in, an earlier published report of proceedings of public concern; and

(b)the matter was, or was contained in, a fair copy of, a fair summary of, or a fair extract from, the earlier published report; and

(c)the defendant had no knowledge that would reasonably make the defendant aware that the earlier published report was not fair.

(3)A defence established under subsection (1) or (2) is defeated if, and only if, the plaintiff proves that the defamatory matter was not published honestly for the information of the public or the advancement of education.(4)In this section—proceedings of public concern means—

(a)any proceedings in public of a parliamentary body; or

(b)any proceedings in public of an international organisation of any countries or of the governments of any countries; or

(c)any proceedings in public of an international conference at which the governments of any countries are represented; or

(d)any proceedings in public of—

(i)the International Court of Justice, or any other judicial or arbitral tribunal, for the decision of any matter in dispute between nations; or

(ii)any other international judicial or arbitral tribunal; or

(e)any proceedings in public of a court or arbitral tribunal of any country; or

(f)any proceedings in public of an inquiry held under the law of any country or under the authority of the government of any country; or

(g)any proceedings in public of a local government body of any Australian jurisdiction; or

(h)proceedings of a learned society, or of a committee or governing body of the society, under its relevant objects, but only to the extent that the proceedings relate to a decision or adjudication made in Australia about—

(i)a member or members of the society; or

(ii)a person subject by contract or otherwise by law to control by the society; or

(i)proceedings of a sport or recreation association, or of a committee or governing body of the association, under its relevant objects, but only to the extent that the proceedings relate to a decision or adjudication made in Australia about—

(i)a member or members of the association; or

(ii)a person subject by contract or otherwise by law to control by the association; or

(j)proceedings of a trade association, or of a committee or governing body of the association, under its relevant objects, but only to the extent that the proceedings relate to a decision or adjudication made in Australia about—

(i)a member or members of the association; or

(ii)a person subject by contract or otherwise by law to control by the association; or

(k)any proceedings of a public meeting (with or without restriction on the people attending) of shareholders of a public company under the Corporations Act held anywhere in Australia; or

(l)any proceedings of a public meeting (with or without restriction on the people attending) held anywhere in Australia if the proceedings relate to a matter of public interest, including the advocacy or candidature of a person for public office; or

(m)any proceedings of an ombudsman of any country if the proceedings relate to a report of the ombudsman; or

(n)any proceedings in public of a law reform body of any country; or

(o)any other proceedings conducted by, or proceedings of, a person, body or organisation of another Australian jurisdiction that are treated in that jurisdiction as proceedings of public concern under a provision of a law of the jurisdiction corresponding to this section; or

(p)any proceedings of a kind specified in schedule 3.

Note—This Act does not contain a schedule 3. See note to section 3(a).(5)In this section—law reform body of a country means a body (however described and whether or not permanent or full-time) established by law to conduct inquiries into, and to make recommendations on, reforming the laws of that country.learned society means a body, wherever formed—

(a)the objects of which include the advancement of any art, science or religion or the advancement of learning in any field; and

(b)authorised by its constitution—

(i)to exercise control over, or adjudicate on, matters connected with those objects; and

(ii)to make findings or decisions having effect, by law or custom, in any part of Australia.

ombudsman of a country means a person (however described and whether or not permanent or full-time) authorised by law to investigate complaints about the actions or other conduct of any public officials or public bodies of that country.relevant objects of a learned society, sport or recreation association or trade association means—

(a)in relation to a learned society—objects of the kind referred to in paragraph (a) of the definition learned society in this subsection; or

(b)in relation to a sport or recreation association—objects of the kind referred to in paragraph (a) of the definition sport or recreation association in this subsection; or

(c)in relation to a trade association—objects of the kind referred to in paragraph (a) of the definition trade association in this subsection.

sport or recreation association means a body, wherever formed—

(a)the objects of which include the promotion of any game, sport, or pastime to the playing of which or exercise of which the public is admitted as spectators or otherwise and the promotion or protection of the interests of people connected with the game, sport, or pastime; and

(b)authorised by its constitution—

(i)to exercise control over, or adjudicate on, matters connected with the game, sport, or pastime; and

(ii)to make findings or decisions having effect, by law or custom, in any part of Australia.

trade association means a body, wherever formed—

(a)the objects of which include the promotion of any calling, that is to say, a trade, business, industry or profession, and the promotion or protection of the interests of people engaged in any calling; and

(b)authorised by its constitution—

(i)to exercise control over, or adjudicate on, matters connected with a calling or the conduct of people engaged in the calling; and

(ii)to make findings or decisions having effect, by law or custom, in any part of Australia.

29ADefence of publication of matter concerning issue of public interest(1)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that—

(a)the matter concerns an issue of public interest; and

(b)the defendant reasonably believed that the publication of the matter was in the public interest.

(2)In determining whether the defence is established, a court must take into account all of the circumstances of the case.(3)Without limiting subsection (2), the court may take into account the following factors to the extent the court considers them applicable in the circumstances—

(a)the seriousness of any defamatory imputation carried by the matter published;

(b)the extent to which the matter published distinguishes between suspicions, allegations and proven facts;

(c)the extent to which the matter published relates to the performance of the public functions or activities of the person;

(d)whether it was in the public interest in the circumstances for the matter to be published expeditiously;

(e)the sources of the information in the matter published, including the integrity of the sources;

(f)if a source of the information in the matter published is a person whose identity is being kept confidential, whether there is good reason for the person’s identity to be kept confidential (including, for example, to comply with an applicable professional code or standard);

(g)whether the matter published contained the substance of the person’s side of the story and, if not, whether a reasonable attempt was made by the defendant to obtain and publish a response from the person;

(h)any other steps taken to verify the information in the matter published;

(i)the importance of freedom of expression in the discussion of issues of public interest.

(4)Subsection (3) does not—

(a)require each factor referred to in the subsection to be taken into account; or

(b)limit the matters that the court may take into account.

(5)Without affecting the application of section 22 to other defences, the jury (and not the judicial officer) in defamation proceedings tried by jury is to determine whether a defence under this section is established.30Defence of qualified privilege for provision of certain information(1)There is a defence of qualified privilege for the publication of defamatory matter to a person (the recipient) if the defendant proves that—

(a)the recipient has an interest or apparent interest in having information on some subject; and

(b)the matter is published to the recipient in the course of giving to the recipient information on that subject; and

(c)the conduct of the defendant in publishing that matter is reasonable in the circumstances.

(2)For the purposes of subsection (1), a recipient has an apparent interest in having information on some subject if, and only if, at the time of the publication in question, the defendant believes on reasonable grounds that the recipient has that interest.(3)In determining for the purposes of subsection (1) whether the conduct of the defendant in publishing matter about a person is reasonable in the circumstances, a court may take into account the following factors to the extent the court considers them applicable in the circumstances—

(a)the seriousness of any defamatory imputation carried by the matter published;

(b)the extent to which the matter published distinguishes between suspicions, allegations and proven facts;

(c)the nature of the business environment in which the defendant operates;

(d)whether it was appropriate in the circumstances for the matter to be published expeditiously;

(e)any other steps taken to verify the information in the matter published.

(3A)Subsection (3) does not—

(a)require each factor referred to in the subsection to be taken into account; or

(b)limit the matters that the court may take into account.

(3B)It is not necessary to prove that the matter published concerned an issue of public interest to establish the defence of qualified privilege under subsection (1).(4)For the avoidance of doubt, a defence of qualified privilege under subsection (1) is defeated if the plaintiff proves that the publication of the defamatory matter was actuated by malice.(5)However, a defence of qualified privilege under subsection (1) is not defeated merely because the defamatory matter was published for reward.(6)Without affecting the application of section 22 to other defences, the jury (and not the judicial officer) in defamation proceedings tried by jury is to determine whether a defence under this section is established.30ADefence of scientific or academic peer review(1)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that—

(a)the matter was published in a scientific or academic journal (whether published in electronic form or otherwise); and

(b)the matter relates to a scientific or academic issue; and

(c)an independent review of the matter’s scientific or academic merit was carried out before the matter was published in the journal by—

(i)the editor of the journal if the editor has expertise in the scientific or academic issue concerned; or

(ii)1 or more persons with expertise in the scientific or academic issue concerned.

(2)If there is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter in a scientific or academic journal because of subsection (1), there is also a defence to the publication of any assessment of the matter in the same journal if the defendant proves that—

(a)the assessment was written by 1 or more of the persons who carried out the independent review of the matter; and

(b)the assessment was written in the course of that review.

(3)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that the matter was contained in a fair summary of, or fair extract from, a matter or assessment for which there is a defence because of subsection (1) or (2).(4)If a journal has more than 1 editor, a reference in this section to the editor of the journal is to be read as a reference to the editor or editors who were responsible for deciding to publish the matter concerned.(5)A defence established under this section is defeated if, and only if, the plaintiff proves that the defamatory matter or assessment was not published honestly for the information of the public or the advancement of education.31Defences of honest opinion(1)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that—

(a)the matter was an expression of opinion of the defendant rather than a statement of fact; and

(b)the opinion related to a matter of public interest; and

(c)the opinion is based on proper material.

(2)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that—

(a)the matter was an expression of opinion of an employee or agent of the defendant rather than a statement of fact; and

(b)the opinion related to a matter of public interest; and

(c)the opinion is based on proper material.

(3)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that—

(a)the matter was an expression of opinion of a person (the commentator), other than the defendant or an employee or agent of the defendant, rather than a statement of fact; and

(b)the opinion related to a matter of public interest; and

(c)the opinion is based on proper material.

(4)A defence established under this section is defeated if, and only if, the plaintiff proves that—

(a)in the case of a defence under subsection (1)—the opinion was not honestly held by the defendant at the time the defamatory matter was published; or

(b)in the case of a defence under subsection (2)—the defendant did not believe that the opinion was honestly held by the employee or agent at the time the defamatory matter was published; or

(c)in the case of a defence under subsection (3)—the defendant had reasonable grounds to believe that the opinion was not honestly held by the commentator at the time the defamatory matter was published.

(5)For the purposes of this section, an opinion is based on proper material if—

(a)the material on which it is based is—

(i)set out in specific or general terms in the published matter; or

(ii)notorious; or

(iii)accessible from a reference, link or other access point included in the matter (for example, a hyperlink on a webpage); or

(iv)otherwise apparent from the context in which the matter is published; and

(b)the material—

(i)is substantially true; or

(ii)was published on an occasion of absolute or qualified privilege (whether under this Act or at general law); or

(iii)was published on an occasion that attracted the protection of a defence under this section or section 28 or 29.

(6)An opinion does not cease to be based on proper material only because some of the material on which it is based is not proper material if the opinion might reasonably be based on such of the material as is proper material.31ADefence for publications involving digital intermediaries(1)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory digital matter if the defendant proves—

(a)the defendant was a digital intermediary in relation to the publication; and

(b)the defendant had, at the time of the publication, an accessible complaints mechanism for the plaintiff to use; and

(c)if the plaintiff gave the defendant a written complaint under this section about the publication—reasonable access prevention steps, if steps were available, were taken in relation to the publication, whether before the complaint was given or within 7 days after the complaint was given.Notes—

1The defendant is not required to prove paragraph (c) to establish the defence if the plaintiff has not given the defendant a written complaint about the publication under this section. Subsection (3) sets out requirements for giving written complaints.

2Subsection (6) defines accessible complaints mechanism.

(2)For subsection (1)(c), reasonable access prevention steps were taken in relation to the publication of digital matter if—

(a)for access prevention steps taken by the defendant—the steps taken were reasonable for the defendant to take in the circumstances; or

(b)for access prevention steps taken by another person—it was reasonable for the defendant not to take steps because of the steps already taken.

(3)A written complaint is given under this section about the publication of defamatory digital matter if—

(a)the complaint contained information sufficient to enable a reasonable person in the defendant’s circumstances to be made aware of the following—

(i)the name of the plaintiff;

(ii)the matter and where it could be located;

(iii)that the plaintiff considered the matter to be defamatory; and

(b)the complaint was given using an accessible complaints mechanism for the plaintiff to use or given to the defendant in another way permitted by section 44.

(4)A defence under this section is defeated only if the plaintiff proves the defendant was actuated by malice in establishing or providing the online service by means of which the digital matter was published.(5)A defendant who would otherwise be a digital intermediary in relation to the publication of digital matter does not cease to be a digital intermediary for this section merely because the defendant took steps to detect or identify, or steps to remove, block, disable or otherwise prevent access by persons to, the following—

(a)defamatory or other unlawful content published, or sought to be published, by a person using the online service provided by the defendant;

(b)other content published, or sought to be published, by a person using the online service provided by the defendant that was incompatible with the terms or conditions under which the service was provided.

Note—This subsection allows a defendant to rely on the defence despite the definition of digital intermediary in schedule 5 excluding authors, originators or posters of digital matter if the defendant’s editorial or moderating role over content published using the online service was limited to the steps mentioned in the subsection. (6)In this section—accessible complaints mechanism, for a plaintiff to use, means an easily accessible address, location or other mechanism available for the plaintiff to use to complain to the defendant about the publication of the digital matter concerned.Examples of an accessible complaints mechanism

•an email address or direct messaging address to which a complaint may be sent

•a webpage, or a part of a webpage, enabling details about a complaint to be uploaded or inputted

32Defence of innocent dissemination(1)It is a defence to the publication of defamatory matter if the defendant proves that—

(a)the defendant published the matter merely in the capacity, or as an employee or agent, of a subordinate distributor; and

(b)the defendant neither knew, nor ought reasonably to have known, that the matter was defamatory; and

(c)the defendant’s lack of knowledge was not due to any negligence on the part of the defendant.

(2)For the purposes of subsection (1), a person is a subordinate distributor of defamatory matter if the person—

(a)was not the first or primary distributor of the matter; and

(b)was not the author or originator of the matter; and

(c)did not have any capacity to exercise editorial control over the content of the matter (or over the publication of the matter) before it was first published.

(3)Without limiting subsection (2)(a), a person is not the first or primary distributor of matter merely because the person was involved in the publication of the matter in the capacity of—

(a)a bookseller, newsagent or news-vendor; or

(b)a librarian; or

(c)a wholesaler or retailer of the matter; or

(d)a provider of postal or similar services by means of which the matter is published; or

(e)a broadcaster of a live program (whether on television, radio or otherwise) containing the matter in circumstances in which the broadcaster has no effective control over the person who makes the statements that comprise the matter; or

(f)a provider of services consisting of—

(i)the processing, copying, distributing or selling of any electronic medium in or on which the matter is recorded; or

(ii)the operation of, or the provision of, any equipment, system or service, by means of which the matter is retrieved, copied, distributed or made available in electronic form; or

(g)an operator of, or a provider of access to, a communications system by means of which the matter is transmitted, or made available, by another person over whom the operator or provider has no effective control; or

(h)a person who, on the instructions or at the direction of another person, prints or produces, reprints or reproduces or distributes the matter for or on behalf of that other person.

Division 3Remedies34Damages to bear rational relationship to harmIn determining the amount of damages to be awarded in any defamation proceedings, the court is to ensure that there is an appropriate and rational relationship between the harm sustained by the plaintiff and the amount of damages awarded.35Damages for non-economic loss limited(1)The maximum amount of damages for non-economic loss that may be awarded in defamation proceedings is $250,000 or any other amount adjusted in accordance with this section from time to time (the maximum damages amount) that is applicable at the time damages are awarded.(2)The maximum damages amount is to be awarded only in a most serious case.(2A)Subsection (1) does not limit the court’s power to award aggravated damages if an award of aggravated damages is warranted in the circumstances.(2B)An award of aggravated damages is to be made separately to any award of damages for non-economic loss to which subsection (1) applies.(3)The Minister is, on or before 1 July 2006 and on or before 1 July in each succeeding year, to declare, by order published in the gazette, the amount that is to apply, as from the date specified in the order, for the purposes of subsection (1).(4)The amount declared is to be the amount applicable under subsection (1) (or that amount as last adjusted under this section) adjusted by the percentage change in the amount estimated by the Australian Statistician of the average weekly total earnings of full-time adults in Australia over the 4 quarters preceding the date of the declaration for which those estimates are, at that date, available.(5)An amount declared for the time being under this section applies to the exclusion of the amount of $250,000 or an amount previously adjusted under this section.(6)If the Australian Statistician fails or ceases to estimate the amount referred to in subsection (4), the amount declared is to be determined under a regulation.(7)In adjusting an amount to be declared for the purposes of subsection (1), the amount determined in accordance with subsection (4) is to be rounded to the nearest $500.(8)A declaration made or published in the gazette after 1 July in a year and specifying a date that is before the date it is made or published as the date from which the amount declared by the order is to apply has effect as from that specified date.36State of mind of defendant generally not relevant to awarding damagesIn awarding damages for defamation, the court is to disregard the malice or other state of mind of the defendant at the time of the publication of the defamatory matter to which the proceedings relate or at any other time except to the extent that the malice or other state of mind affects the harm sustained by the plaintiff.37Exemplary or punitive damages can not be awardedA plaintiff can not be awarded exemplary or punitive damages for defamation.38Factors in mitigation of damages(1)Evidence is admissible on behalf of the defendant, in mitigation of damages for the publication of defamatory matter, that—

(a)the defendant has made an apology to the plaintiff about the publication of the defamatory matter; or

(b)the defendant has published a correction of the defamatory matter; or

(c)the plaintiff has already recovered damages for defamation in relation to any other publication of matter having the same meaning or effect as the defamatory matter; or

(d)the plaintiff has brought proceedings for damages for defamation in relation to any other publication of matter having the same meaning or effect as the defamatory matter; or

(e)the plaintiff has received or agreed to receive compensation for defamation in relation to any other publication of matter having the same meaning or effect as the defamatory matter.

(2)Nothing in subsection (1) operates to limit the matters that can be taken into account by a court in mitigation of damages.39Damages for multiple causes of action may be assessed as single sumIf the court in defamation proceedings finds for the plaintiff as to more than 1 cause of action, the judicial officer may assess damages in a single sum.39AOrders against non-party digital intermediaries concerning defamatory digital matter(1)This section applies in relation to defamation proceedings for the publication of digital matter if—

(a)the plaintiff has obtained judgment for defamation against the defendant in the proceedings; or

(b)a court has granted a temporary injunction or makes another temporary order preventing the defendant from continuing to publish, or from republishing, the matter pending the determination of the proceedings; or

(c)a court has granted a final injunction or makes another final order preventing the defendant from continuing to publish, or from republishing, the matter.

(2)In defamation proceedings to which this section applies, the court may order a digital intermediary who is not a party to the proceedings (a non-party digital intermediary) to take access prevention steps or other steps the court considers necessary in the circumstances—

(a)to prevent or limit the continued publication or republication of the matter; or

(b)to comply with, or otherwise give effect to, the judgment, injunction or other order mentioned in subsection (1).

(3)Without limiting subsection (2), an order under this section may—

(a)require 1 or more steps to be taken; or

(b)require a step to be taken in relation to all, or only some, of the users of an online service.

(4)The court may not make an order under this section against a non-party digital intermediary unless the intermediary has been given an opportunity to be heard about whether it is appropriate for the order to be made.(5)Despite subsection (4), the court may make a temporary order without giving the non-party digital intermediary an opportunity to be heard about whether it is appropriate to make the order if the court considers it necessary in the circumstances for the order to be made expeditiously pending a subsequent hearing concerning whether a further temporary order or a final order should be made.(6)An order may be made under this section even if the non-party digital intermediary is not, or may not be, liable for defamation, including because of a defence, for the publication of the digital matter to which the defamation proceedings relate.(7)This section does not limit other powers the court may have apart from this section to grant injunctions or make other orders requiring a non-party digital intermediary to take access prevention steps or other steps.Division 4Costs40Costs in defamation proceedings(1)In awarding costs in defamation proceedings, the court may have regard to—

(a)the way in which the parties to the proceedings conducted their cases (including any misuse of a party’s superior financial position to hinder the early resolution of the proceedings); and

(b)any other matters that the court considers relevant.

(2)Without limiting subsection (1), a court must (unless the interests of justice require otherwise)—

(a)if defamation proceedings are successfully brought by a plaintiff and costs in the proceedings are to be awarded to the plaintiff—order costs of and incidental to the proceedings to be assessed on an indemnity basis if the court is satisfied that the defendant unreasonably failed to make a settlement offer or agree to a settlement offer proposed by the plaintiff; or

(b)if defamation proceedings are unsuccessfully brought by a plaintiff and costs in the proceedings are to be awarded to the defendant—order costs of and incidental to the proceedings to be assessed on an indemnity basis if the court is satisfied that the plaintiff unreasonably failed to accept a settlement offer made by the defendant.

(3)In this section—settlement offer means any offer to settle the proceedings made before the proceedings are determined, and includes an offer to make amends (whether made before or after the proceedings are commenced), that was a reasonable offer at the time it was made.Part 5Miscellaneous41Proof of publication(1)If a document appears to be printed or otherwise produced by means adapted for the production of numerous copies and there is in the document a statement to the effect that the document is printed, produced, published or distributed by or for a particular person, the statement is evidence in defamation proceedings that the document was so printed, produced, published or distributed.(2)Evidence that a number or part of a document appearing to be a periodical is printed, produced, published or distributed by or for a particular person is evidence in defamation proceedings that a document appearing to be another number or part of the periodical was so printed, produced, published or distributed.(3)In this section—periodical includes any newspaper, review, magazine or other printed document of which numbers or parts are published periodically.42Proof of convictions for offences(1)If the question whether or not a person committed an offence is in question in defamation proceedings—

(a)proof that the person was convicted of the offence by an Australian court is conclusive evidence that the person committed the offence; and

(b)proof that the person was convicted of the offence by a court of any country (other than an Australian court) or a court martial of any country is evidence that the person committed the offence.

(2)For the purposes of this section, the contents of a document that is evidence of conviction of an offence, and the contents of an information, complaint, indictment, charge sheet or similar document on which a person is convicted of an offence, are admissible in evidence to identify the facts on which the conviction is based.(3)Subsection (2) does not affect the admissibility of other evidence to identify the facts on which the conviction is based.(4)In this section—conviction for an offence includes a finding of guilt but does not include—

(a)a conviction that has been set aside or quashed; or

(b)a conviction for an offence for which a person has received a pardon.

43Section number not usedSee note to section 3(a).44Giving of notices and other documents(1)For the purposes of this Act, a notice or other document may be given to a person (or a notice or other document may be served on a person)—

(a)in the case of a natural person—

(i)by delivering it to the person personally; or

(ii)by sending it by post to the address specified by the person for the giving or service of documents or, if no such address is specified, the residential or business address of the person last known to the person giving or serving the document; or

(iii)by sending it by facsimile transmission to the facsimile number of the person; or

(iv)by sending it by email to an email address specified by the person for the giving or service of documents; or

(iv)by sending it by email, messaging or other electronic communication to an electronic address or location indicated by the person for giving documents to, or serving documents on, the person; or

(b)in the case of a body corporate—

(i)by leaving it with a person apparently of or above the age of 16 years at, or by sending it by post to, the head office, a registered office or a principal office of the body corporate or to an address specified by the body corporate for the giving or service of documents; or

(ii)by sending it by facsimile transmission to the facsimile number of the body corporate; or

(iii)by sending it by email to an email address specified by the body corporate for the giving or service of documents.

(iii)by sending it by email, messaging or other electronic communication to an electronic address or location indicated by the body corporate for giving documents to, or serving documents on, the body corporate.Examples for paragraphs (a)(iv) and (b)(iii)—

•an email address or direct messaging address set out on an internet-based social media forum for contacting the administrator of the forum about content on the forum

•an email address or direct messaging address provided by the poster of digital matter on an internet-based social media forum for contacting the poster about the content of the matter

•a form on a website provided by a digital intermediary enabling a user to contact the intermediary by filling in the form or uploading documents

(2)Nothing in this section affects the operation of any provision of a law or of the rules of a court authorising a document to be given to or served on a person in any other manner.45Regulation-making powerThe Governor in Council may make regulations under this Act.46Section number not usedSee note to section 3(a).47Repeal of Defamation Act 1889The Defamation Act 1889 53 Vic No. 12 is repealed.49Savings, transitional and other provisions for Act No. 55 of 2005(1)This Act applies to the publication of defamatory matter after the commencement of this Act, unless subsection (2) provides otherwise.(2)The provisions of this Act (other than this section) do not apply to a cause of action for the publication of defamatory matter that accrues after the commencement of this Act (the post-commencement action) if—

(a)the post-commencement action is 1 of 2 or more causes of action in proceedings commenced by a plaintiff; and

(b)each cause of action in the proceedings accrues because of the publication of the same, or substantially the same, matter on separate occasions (whether by the same defendant or another defendant); and

(c)1 or more of the other causes of action in the proceedings accrued before the commencement of this Act (a pre-commencement action); and

(d)the post-commencement action accrued no later than 1 year after the date on which the earliest pre-commencement action in the proceedings accrued.

(3)The existing law of defamation continues to apply to the following causes of action in the same way as it would have applied to those causes of action had this Act not been enacted—

(a)any cause of action that accrued before the commencement of this Act;

(b)any post-commencement action to which the other provisions of this Act do not apply because of subsection (2).

(4)In this section—existing law of defamation means the law (including all relevant statutory provisions and principles and rules of the general law) that applied in this jurisdiction to the determination of civil liability for the publication of defamatory matter immediately before the commencement of this Act.50Transitional provision for Defamation (Model Provisions) and Other Legislation Amendment Act 2021An amendment made to this Act by the Defamation (Model Provisions) and Other Legislation Amendment Act 2021 applies only in relation to the publication of defamatory matter after the commencement of the amendment.Part 6Transitional provisionsDivision 1Transitional provision for Act No. 55 of 200549Causes of action for publication of defamatory matter(1)This Act applies to the publication of defamatory matter after the commencement of this Act, unless subsection (2) provides otherwise.(2)The provisions of this Act (other than this section) do not apply to a cause of action for the publication of defamatory matter that accrues after the commencement of this Act (the post-commencement action) if—

(a)the post-commencement action is 1 of 2 or more causes of action in proceedings commenced by a plaintiff; and

(b)each cause of action in the proceedings accrues because of the publication of the same, or substantially the same, matter on separate occasions (whether by the same defendant or another defendant); and

(c)1 or more of the other causes of action in the proceedings accrued before the commencement of this Act (a pre-commencement action); and

(d)the post-commencement action accrued no later than 1 year after the date on which the earliest pre-commencement action in the proceedings accrued.

(3)The existing law of defamation continues to apply to the following causes of action in the same way as it would have applied to those causes of action had this Act not been enacted—

(a)any cause of action that accrued before the commencement of this Act;

(b)any post-commencement action to which the other provisions of this Act do not apply because of subsection (2).

(4)In this section—existing law of defamation means the law (including all relevant statutory provisions and principles and rules of the general law) that applied in this jurisdiction to the determination of civil liability for the publication of defamatory matter immediately before the commencement of this Act.Division 2Transitional provision for Defamation (Model Provisions) and Other Legislation Amendment Act 202150Publication of defamatory matter after commencementAn amendment made to this Act by the Defamation (Model Provisions) and Other Legislation Amendment Act 2021 applies only in relation to the publication of defamatory matter after the commencement of the amendment.Division 3Transitional provisions for Defamation and Other Legislation Amendment Act 202551Definitions for divisionIn this division—2025 amendments means amendments made to this Act by the Defamation and Other Legislation Amendment Act 2025.existing law, in relation to the 2025 amendments about a subject, means the law that would have applied if the amendments had not been enacted.post-commencement action, in relation to the 2025 amendments about a subject, means a cause of action for the publication of defamatory matter accruing after the commencement of the amendments.pre-commencement action, in relation to the 2025 amendments about a subject, means a cause of action for the publication of defamatory matter accruing before the commencement of the amendments.52Digital intermediary amendments(1)This section applies to the 2025 amendments about the following (the digital intermediary amendments)—

(a)exempting digital intermediaries from liability for defamation;

(b)providing a defence for publications of defamatory digital matter involving digital intermediaries.

(2)Except as provided by subsection (3)(b), the digital intermediary amendments apply to a post-commencement action.(3)The existing law continues to apply despite the digital intermediary amendments—

(a)to a pre-commencement action; and

(b)to a post-commencement action, but only if—

(i)the post-commencement action is 1 of 2 or more causes of action in proceedings commenced by a plaintiff; and

(ii)each cause of action in the proceedings accrues because of the publication of the same, or substantially the same, matter on separate occasions, whether by the same defendant or another defendant; and

(iii)1 or more of the other causes of action in the proceedings are pre-commencement actions; and

(iv)the post-commencement action accrued no later than 1 year after the date on which the earliest pre-commencement action in the proceedings accrued.

53Offer amendments(1)This section applies to the 2025 amendments about offers to make amends (the offer amendments).(2)The offer amendments apply to offers to make amends made after the commencement of the amendments regardless of whether the offers relate to publications occurring before or after the commencement.(3)The existing law continues to apply despite the offer amendments to offers to make amends made before the commencement of the amendments. 54Preliminary discovery or non-party digital intermediary order amendments(1)This section applies to the 2025 amendments about courts making the following orders (the preliminary discovery or non-party digital intermediary order amendments)—

(a)for, or in the nature of, preliminary discovery;

(b)to take steps—

(i)to prevent or limit the continued publication or republication of defamatory matter; or

(ii)to comply with, or otherwise give effect to, judgments, injunctions or other court orders.

(2)Except as provided by subsection (3)(b), the preliminary discovery or non-party digital intermediary order amendments apply to the making of an order after the commencement of the amendments regardless of whether the proceedings in which the order is made—

(a)involve a pre-commencement action or post-commencement action; or

(b)were commenced before or after the commencement of the amendments.

(3)The existing law continues to apply despite the preliminary discovery or non-party digital intermediary order amendments—

(a)to an order made before the commencement of the amendments; or

(b)to the variation or revocation of an order made before the commencement of the amendments.

55Absolute privilege amendments(1)This section applies to the 2025 amendments about the defence of absolute privilege in its application to publications to officials of police forces or services of Australian jurisdictions (the absolute privilege amendments).(2)The absolute privilege amendments apply to a post-commencement action. (3)The existing law continues to apply despite the absolute privilege amendments to a pre-commencement action. 56Document giving or service amendments(1)This section applies to the 2025 amendments about the ways in which notices or other documents for the purposes of this Act must or may be given to, or served on, individuals or bodies corporate (the document giving or service amendments).(2)The document giving or service amendments apply to the giving or service of notices or other documents after the commencement of the amendments regardless of whether the notices or other documents relate—

(a)to pre-commencement actions or post-commencement actions; or

(b)to proceedings commenced before or after the commencement of the amendments.

(3)The existing law continues to apply despite the document giving or service amendments to the giving or service of notices or other documents before the commencement of the amendments.Schedule numbers 1–34 not usedSee note to section 3(a).Schedule 5Dictionarysection 4(1)access prevention step, in relation to the publication of digital matter, means a step—

(a)to remove the matter; or

(b)to block, disable or otherwise prevent access, whether by some or all persons, to the matter.

applicable period, for an offer to make amends, see section 14(2).associated entity has the meaning given in the Corporations Act, section 50AAA.Australian court means any court established by or under a law of an Australian jurisdiction (including a court conducting committal proceedings for an indictable offence).Australian jurisdiction means—

(a)a State; or

(b)a Territory; or

(c)the Commonwealth.

Australian tribunal means any tribunal (other than a court) established by or under a law of an Australian jurisdiction that has the power to take evidence from witnesses before it on oath or affirmation (including a Royal Commission or other special commission of inquiry).concerns notice see section 12A(1).country includes—

(a)a federation and a state, territory, province or other part of a federation; and

(b)an Australian jurisdiction.

digital intermediary, in relation to the publication of digital matter, means a person, other than an author, originator or poster of the matter, who provides or administers the online service by means of which the matter is published.Note—There may be more than 1 digital intermediary in relation to the publication of the same digital matter.digital matter means matter published in electronic form by means of an online service.document means any record of information, and includes—

(a)anything on which there is writing; and

(b)anything on which there are marks, figures, symbols or perforations having a meaning for persons qualified to interpret them; and

(c)anything from which sounds, images or writings can be reproduced with or without the aid of anything else; and

(d)a map, plan, drawing or photograph.

electronic communication includes a communication of information in the form of data, text, images or sound (or any combination of these) by means of guided or unguided electromagnetic energy, or both.excluded corporation has the meaning given in section 9(2).further particulars notice see section 12A(3).general law means the common law and equity.matter includes—

(a)an article, report, advertisement or other thing communicated by means of a newspaper, magazine or other periodical; and

(b)a program, report, advertisement or other thing communicated by means of television, radio, the Internet or any other form of electronic communication; and

(c)a letter, note or other writing; and

(d)a picture, gesture or oral utterance; and

(e)any other thing by means of which something may be communicated to a person.

offer to make amends means an offer to make amends under part 3, division 1.online service means a service provided to a person, whether or not it is requested or it is for a fee or reward, to enable the person to use the internet, including, without limitation, a service enabling a person—

(a)to access or connect to the internet; or

(b)to use the internet to do 1 or more of the following—

(i)send or receive content;

(ii)store content;

(iii)index content;

(iv)search for content;

(v)share content;

(vi)interact with other persons.

Examples of an online service—

•an internet-based social media platform

•a forum created or administered by a person using a facility provided by an internet-based social media platform that enables users to share content or interact with other users about a topic

•a website or other internet-based platform that enables knowledge to be shared by or with its users

parliamentary body means—

(a)a parliament or legislature of any country; or

(b)a house of a parliament or legislature of any country; or

(c)a committee of a parliament or legislature of any country; or

(d)a committee of a house or houses of a parliament or legislature of any country.

poster, in relation to the publication of digital matter, means a person who uses the online service by means of which the matter is published for the purpose of communicating the matter to 1 or more other persons.substantially true means true in substance or not materially different from the truth.Territory means the Australian Capital Territory or the Northern Territory.this jurisdiction means Queensland.